AP English Literature Multiple Choice Complete Expert Guide

AP English Literature Multiple Choice Complete Expert Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Does the thought of spending an hour answering multiple-choice questions on complex prose and poetry passages strike fear into your heart? The challenge of the AP Literature multiple-choice is enough togive even the most adept reader hives, but don't stress! This guide will serve as your complete roadmap to success on the AP English Literature and Composition multiple-choice section. First, we’ll go over what the multiple-choice section looks like- the nuts and bolts. Then, I’ll reveal the eight types of multiple-choice questions you can expect to encounter, and how to succeed on them. Next will come study tips, multiple-choice practice resources, and finally things to remember for test-day success! AP Literature Multiple-Choice Section Overview AP English Literature and Composition section one is the multiple-choice section. You’ll have 60 minutes to answer 55 questions about four-five literary prose and poetry passages. The date of composition of the passages could range from the 16th to the 21th century, however, you generally won’t be provided with the author, date, or title for any passages (poetry being an occasional exception with respect to title). Most passages come from works originally written in English, although there might occasionally be a translated passage from a notable literary work in a foreign language. The multiple-choice section is worth 45% of your total exam score. You receive a point for each correctly answered question. Since there’s no penalty for guessing on this exam, you should answer every multiple-choice question, even if you have to guess. However, you should only guess after you eliminate any answers you know are wrong.That’s the general overview. But what kinds of questions can you expect to see? The 8 Types of Multiple-Choice AP Lit Questions There are eight question types you may encounter on the AP Lit exam. In this section, I’ll go over each question type and how to answer it. All questions are taken from the sample questions in the â€Å"AP Course and Exam Description.† Passages for these questions are available there as well. 1. Reading Comprehension Reading comprehension questions test whether you understood what the passage was saying on a literal, concrete level. You don’t need to flex your interpretation or analysis muscles here- just report what the passage is saying. You can spot these questions because they usually use words and phrases like â€Å"according to,† â€Å"asserting,† and â€Å"mentioned.† The best strategy for these questions is to go back and re-read the portion of the text associated with the question to make absolutely sure that you are reading it correctly. You may need to read a little before and/or after the moment mentioned to orient yourself and find the most correct answer. Example: Explanation: The lines the passage is referring to say, â€Å"Spare us all word of the weapons, their force and range / The long numbers that rocket the mind / Our slow, unreckoning hearts will be left behind, / unable to fear what is too strange.† This question is asking why people won’t listen to the prophet when he talks about the dangers of weapons. Which of the answers makes the most sense? Choice (A), â€Å"human beings are interested in weapons,† might be a tempting choice simply because that’s a common theme and message of many works. But nowhere in the passage does it say that humans are interested in weapons! Eliminate it. Choices (B) and (C) can also both be eliminated because this part of the passage says nothing about nature or love, even indirectly. Choice (D) may also be tempting simply because it’s another common theme in literature- that people don’t listen to repeated warnings. But again, there’s not really anything in the passage to support that. This leaves (E), â€Å"people cannot comprehend abstract decisions of power.† This lines up nicely with the passage, which says that the â€Å"hearts† of the people are â€Å"unable to fear what is too strange.† (E) is the correct answer. The people in this poem have hearts of stone. 2. Inference These questions take you one step beyond simple reading comprehension and ask you to make an inference based on the evidence in the passage- you may be asked about a character or narrator’s implied opinion, the author’s attitude, etc. This will be something that isn’t stated directly in the passage, but that you can assume based on what is actually said in the passage. These questions generally use words like â€Å"infer† and â€Å"imply.† There are two keys to answering these questions: first, as always, go back and read the part of the passage the question is concerned with. Second, don’t be tripped up by the fact that you are making an inference- the best answer will be most supported by what is actually written in the passage. Inference questions are like second-level reading comprehension questions- you need to know not just what a passage says, but what it means. Example: Explanation: The first sentence of the passage reads, â€Å"Certainly the religious and moral ideas of the Dodson and Tullivers were of too specific a kind to be arrived at deductively from the statement that they were part of the Protest population of Great Britain.† Which choice is the most reasonable inference about the Dodson and Tulliver religious ideas based on the first sentence? Choice (A) says â€Å"the narrator is unable to describe them with complete accuracy.† This might be true, but there’s nothing in the first sentence to support this inference- the narrator says that their ideas are â€Å"too specific,† not they the narrator can’t describe them accurately. Eliminate Choice (A). Choice (B), â€Å"they have no real logical foundation† may also be true, but can’t be inferred from the sentence, which gives no indication of whether their beliefs are logical or not. Choice (C) may be tempting- the idea that they cannot be appreciated by anyone who doesn’t share them might seem to dovetail nicely with the fact that they are â€Å"too specific† for the mainstream Protestant population. But is this the best choice that’s most supported by the passage? Let’s keep it in mind but consider the remaining answers. Choice (D) posits that the beliefs of the Dodsons and Tullivers â€Å"spring from a fundamental lack of tolerance.† This is a leap that is not supported by what the first sentence actually says; eliminate it. Choice (E) says that their beliefs â€Å"are not typical of British Protestants in general.† The sentence says that their beliefs are â€Å"too specific† for one to know them simply because the Dodsons and Tullivers identify as British Protestants, which implies that their beliefs in fact do not â€Å"match up† with mainstream British Protestant beliefs. Choice (E) is the inference most supported by the passage, then- even more supported than Choice (C). So, (E) is the answer. Remember, multiple answers may seem like they could be correct, but only the best answer is the correct one. Do you think appropriately ornate churches are also important to the Dodsons and Tullivers? 3. Identifying and Interpreting Figurative Language These questions ask you to either identify figurative language within the passage or to interpret what figurative language means in the context of the passage. These questions are identifiable because they will either outright mention figurative language or a figurative device, or there will be a figurative language phrase in the question itself. Once again, the most important thing you can do to be successful on these questions is to go back and re-read! For figurative language, the meaning is very much dependent on the phrase’s context in the passage. Consider what is said around the figurative phrase and what the phrase is referring to. Example 1: Identifying Figurative Language Explanation: We need to look at each of these phrases in context to tell which is being used figuratively. Choice (A) comes from the sentence, â€Å"It was necessary to be baptized, else on could not be buried in the churchyard, and to take the sacrament before death as a security against more dimly understood perils; but if was of equal necessity to have the proper pall-bearers and well-cured hams at one’s funeral, and to leave an unimpeachable will.† The phrase â€Å"well-cured hams at one’s funeral,† is clearly literally referring to funeral arrangements; (A) can be eliminated. Moving on, choice (B) comes from the sentence, â€Å"A Dodson would not be taxed with the omission of anything that was becoming...such as obedience to parents, faithfulness to kindred, industry, rigid honesty, thrift, the thorough scouring of wooden and copper utensils, the hoarding of coins likely to disappear from the currency, the production of first-rate commodities for the market, and the general preference for whatever was home-made.† In this case â€Å"the hoarding of coins† refers directly to a behavior the Dodsons considered â€Å"becoming,† and is not figurative. (B) can be eliminated. Choice (C) comes from the clause, â€Å"society owes some worthy qualities in many of her members to mothers of the Dodson class, who made their butter and their fromenty well, and would have felt disgraced to make it otherwise.† Again, this refers literally to making butter and fromenty; (C) can be eliminated. Choice (D) is from the sentence, â€Å"To live respected, and have the proper bearers at your funeral, was an achievement of the ends of existence.† Once more, this refers on a concrete level to actual funeral-bearers (echoing the discussion of proper funerals earlier in the passage) and is not figurative. This leaves only (E), from the sentence, â€Å"A conspicuous quality in the Dodson character was its genuineness: its vices and virtues alike were phases of a proud, honest egoism, which had a hearty dislike to whatever made against its own credit and interest, and would be frankly hard of inconvenient ‘kin,’ but would never forsake or ignore them- would not let them want bread, but only require them to eat it with bitter herbs.† It’s pretty easy to identify â€Å"eat it with bitter herbs† as figurative if you are familiar with the allusion to â€Å"bitter herbs† which symbolize the slavery of the Israelites in Egypt in the Jewish tradition. If you don’t know that, you can still identify this as the figurative phrase because it seems more likely that this phrase is referring to feeding your ‘kin’ but shaming them for needing your help as opposed to actually feeding the hungry with bread and â€Å"bitter herbs.† (E) i s the correct answer. Example 2: Interpreting Figurative Language Explanation: This questions asks you to interpret what the figurative phrase â€Å"that live tongue† means. To orient you in the poem, these stanzas are advising the prophet to â€Å"speak of the world’s own change† (13). The poem states, â€Å"What should we be without / The dolphin’s arc, the dove’s return, / these things in which we have seen ourselves and spoken? Ask us, prophet, how we shall call / our natures forth when that live tongue is all / Dispelled, that glass obscured or broken.† In the context of the poem, right the narrator asks what we are without â€Å"that live tongue,† the poem speaks of how we â€Å"see ourselves† in â€Å"the dolphin’s arc† and â€Å"the dove’s return.† These are images of nature. The best interpretation of â€Å"that live tongue,† then, is answer (A), as a metaphor for nature. In essence, the stanza means, â€Å"Ask us, prophet, how we shall know ourselves when nature is destroyed.† The dolphin's arc. 4. Literary Technique These questions ask why the author uses particular words, phrases, or structures. Essentially, what purpose do such choices serve in a literary sense? What effect is created? These questions often include words like â€Å"serves chiefly to,† â€Å"effect,† â€Å"evoke,† and â€Å"in order to.† Of course to approach these questions, re-read the part of the passage referred to. But also ask yourself, why did the author use these particular words or this particular structure? What is being accomplished by this specific literary â€Å"move†? Example: Explanation: This stanza containing the repetition of â€Å"ask us† reads: â€Å"Ask us, ask us whether with the worldless rose / Our hearts shall fail us; come demanding / Whether there shall be lofty or long-standing / When the bronze annals of the oak-tree close.† So what is the effect of repeating â€Å"ask us, ask us†? Choice (A) says it suggests the prophet is causing much of the world’s misery. There’s nothing in the stanza- or even the entire poem- to suggest this, so we can eliminate it. Choice (B) says it represents a sarcastic challenge. This stanza doesn’t read as sarcastic, though, but very serious- eliminate (B). Choice (C) says it suggests the speaker is certain of the answer the prophet will give. This doesn’t really make sense because the speaker isn’t actually asking the prophet questions, but telling the prophet what questions to ask. Eliminate (C). Choice (D) says it makes the line into perfect iambic pentameter. You can eliminate this one without even worrying about what syllables are emphasized because a perfect line of iambic pentameter has 10 syllables and this line has . This leaves (E)- the effect is to provide a â€Å"tone of imploring earnestness.† Given that the speaker seems to be begging the prophet to ask particular questions, this fits. (E) is the correct answer. 5. Character Analysis Character analysis questions will ask you to identify something about a character- their opinions, attitudes, beliefs, relationships with other characters, and so on. In many ways this is a special type of inference questions, because you are inferring broader traits of the character based on the evidence presented in the passage. As you might expect, character questions are asked much more frequently for prose passages than poetry ones. The key here is to pay attention to everything that is directly stated about the character(s) in the relevant parts of the passage. Like in an inference question, there will be an answer that best fits with the evidence in the passage. Example: Explanation: These lines read, â€Å"Their religion was of a simple, semi-pagan kind, but there was no heresy in it- if heresy properly means choice- for they didn’t know there was any other religion except that of chapel-goers, which appeared to run in families, like asthma.† Choice (A) purports that this part of the passage draws attention to the Dodson sisters’ devotion to certain rituals. No rituals are mentioned here; (A) can be eliminated. Choice (B) says these lines point to their â€Å"untroubled complacency.† The passage states that they didn’t know of any other religion. If they don’t know, we can reasonably infer that they are not troubled by their own religion. Keep (B) in the running. Choice (C) purports they have â€Å"deep religious conviction.† This seems like a bit of a leap; all the passage really states is that their religions if â€Å"semi-pagan,† but not heretical because they simply don’t know any other religion other than â€Å"chapel-goers† which seems to be tied to family lineage. We can’t reasonably infer that they have strong religious conviction from this. Eliminate (C). Choice (D) states that they have â€Å"disturbed consciences.† Again, nothing in the passage makes this a reasonable conclusion; if they don’t know there could be other religious traditions, why would they be disturbed by their own? Choice (E) says they have a â€Å"sense of history and tradition.† This might be a tempting choice because they point to the fact that the religion of â€Å"chapel-goers...appeared to run in families.† But that’s not their religion, so this isn’t a well-supported inference. Thus, Choice (B) provides the most reasonable inference about the Dodson sisters and is the correct answer. Quite a character. 6. Overall Passage Questions These questions will require you to take a â€Å"bird’s-eye view† of the passage and identify or describe a characteristic of the passage as a whole: its purpose, tone, genre, and so on. These can be difficult because you can’t simply go back to a specific place in the passage to find the best answer; you need to consider the passage overall. Consider the overall picture created by the tiny details. I strongly recommend marking up texts for main themes, purpose, tone, etc on the first read-through so that you can consult your margin notations for these kinds of questions. Example: Explanation: It is clear through even a quick scan of this passage that the narrator goes on at length about the Dodsons, so we can surmise that the narrator is most concerned with something about the Dodsons. We can eliminate (B) and (C), then, as they don’t say anything about the Dodsons. So what about the Dodsons is the narrator most concerned with? The first sentence mentions their â€Å"religious and moral ideas,† but then describes their â€Å"semi-pagan† but not heretical religion. We then see â€Å"the religion of the Dodsons consisted in revering whatever was customary and respectable† (22-23), followed by a long list of what that is. The rest of the passage similarly describes what the Dodsons believe is important, from being â€Å"richer than was supposed† to doing right thing â€Å"towards kindred.† It is clear, then, that the narrator is most concerned with describing the values of the Dodsons, which aligns with choice (A). 7. Structure These questions ask about specific structural elements of the passage. Often you’ll be asked about shifts in tone, digressions, or the specific form of a poem.Sometimes these questions will point to a specific part of the passage/poem and ask you to identify what that part of the passage is accomplishing within in the larger excerpt. This is another question type where marking the passage on your first read-through will be very helpful- be sure to mark any shifts in structure, tone, genre, etc as you read, and any structural elements that seem unusual or significant. Example: Explanation: Lines 1-34 describe an image of the narrator playing his lute for his love. Lines 34-43 establish that the narrator is about to introduce an idle thought (yes, this is a loquacious poem). Lines 44-48 read: â€Å"And what if all of animated nature / Be but organic Harps diversely fram’d, / That tremble into thought, as o’er them sweeps / Plastic and vast, one intellectual breeze, / At once the Soul of each, and God of all?† So what’s the narrator saying here? He is wondering if â€Å"all of animated nature† (so all living things) are just harps, and thought is the strings being played. This is clearly metaphorical, and the third footnote for the passage tells us that â€Å"lute† is a synonym for â€Å"harp.† So the answer is (D)- this part of the passage functions as a â€Å"metaphorical application of the image of the lute.† It's a harp! No, it's a lute! No, it's both! 8. Grammar/Nuts Bolts Very rarely, you will be asked a question on the grammar of a part of a passage- like identifying what word an adjective is modifying. Very specific questions about the meter of a poem (i.e. iambic pentameter) would also fall into this category. These questions are not so much about literary artistry and more about the dry technique requisite for a fluent command of the English language. Example: Explanation: The section of the poem concerned reads, â€Å"Of yonder hill I stretch my limbs at noon, / Whilst through my half-clos’d eye-lids I behold / The sunbeams dance, like diamond, on the main, / And tranquil muse upon tranquility.† What a mouthful! If we can untangle this sentence, figuring out what â€Å"tranquil† is modifying will be fairly easy. First, though, we can eliminate all answers that call â€Å"tranquil† an adverb, because the adverb form of â€Å"tranquil† is â€Å"tranquilly.† Eliminate (B) and (E). In the sentence, we have that the speaker (â€Å"I†) is beholding the sunbeams dancing. Then we have â€Å"and† followed by another verb in â€Å"muse.† How do we know â€Å"muse† is a verb here? Because otherwise the clause â€Å"and tranquil muse upon tranquility† has no verb and makes no sense. Since â€Å"muse† is a verb, it can’t be modified by an adjective, so eliminate choice (D). This leaves (A) and (C). Does it make sense for â€Å"sunbeams† to muse upon tranquility? Not particularly; it makes much more sense for the speaker (I) to muse upon tranquility. Choice (A) is the correct answer. So are these sunbeams dancing? How to Prepare for AP Literature Multiple Choice I have several tips on how you can best position yourself for success on the AP Lit multiple-choice section. Read a Variety of Literary Works and Poems Because the passages on the AP Literature multiple-choice section come from a variety of eras, genres, authors, and styles, it’s important to familiarize yourself with a wide variety of English literary styles so that you will feel comfortable with the passages and able to parse what they are saying without becoming overwhelmed. So read a lot of everything: prose of course, but poetry in particular, as many students are less familiar with poetry already and poetry can be fairly opaque and hard to analyze. As a starting place for things you could read, see my ARTICLE ON BOOKS. When you start to feel comfortable with the language of many eras and styles, it’s time to work on honing your close-reading skills. Hone Your Close Reading Skills Your ability to read closely- to read passages not just for comprehension but with an eye for how the author uses literary technique- is paramount on the multiple-choice section. You will practice on close-reading prose and poetry in class, but extra practice can only help you. So when you’re doing all of your reading from different eras and genres, think about what the author is doing and why he or she is doing it. What techniques are being deployed? What motifs and themes are there? How are characters portrayed? If you’re stumped as to how to go about this, here are some prose close-reading resources: You can get close-reading guides online from The University of Wisconsin-Madison’s writing center and the Harvard College Writing Center. The Purdue OWL also has an article on steering clear of close-reading â€Å"pitfalls.† Here are some close-reading resources for poetry: Here’s a poetry reading guide from The University of Wisconsin-Madison. You should definitely check out this truly excellent guide to reading poetry from Poets.org, which comes complete with two poetry close-readings. Learn Literary and Poetic Devices You’ll want to be familiar with a literary terms so that any questions that ask about them will make sense to you. Again, you’ll probably learn most of these in class, but it doesn’t hurt to brush up on them. Here are some comprehensive lists of literary terms with definitions: About.com Literary Glossary Literary-Devices.Com list, which even has examples! Complete Practice Questions and Take Practice Multiple-Choice Sections To succeed on the multiple-choice section, practice taking multiple-choice questions! This may seem like a no-brainer but it’s still very important nonetheless. Set aside time to take a sizeable number of practice questions every week. Keep track of what kinds of questions are easy for you- do you identify the theme every time?- and which ones are hard- stumped by similes? This will help you figure out if there are any skills or concepts you need to brush up on. You should also take a complete multiple-choice practice section at least once, twice if you are able. You could do this as part of a complete practice test (which I recommend) or do it separately. But taking a multiple-choice section under AP-like conditions will help you feel prepared, calm and collected on test day. As prepared as a Regency belle who has snagged an officer! AP Literature Multiple-Choice Practice Resources There are a variety of practice resources available that you can use to hone your multiple-choice skills for the AP English Literature and Composition exam. The gold standard for the best multiple-choice practice questions is the College Board. This is because they write the AP exam, so their practice questions are the most like the real AP multiple-choice questions you’ll see on test day. They offer both complete released exams and sample questions. Even once you run out of official College Board practice questions, there are still unofficial resources you can use to hone your multiple-choice skills. In this section I’ll go over both. Official Resources See below for three potential sources of official College Board questions. Released College Board Exams There are two official released College Board Exams. Each have a complete multiple-choice section of 55 questions. Here are the links! 1987 AP English Literature and Composition Exam 1999 AP English Literature and Composition Exam Sample Questions from the Course and Exam Description The AP English Literature Course and Exam Description has 46 practice multiple-choice questions! Your Teacher Your AP teacher may also have copies of old AP exams that you can use for practice. Ask him and see! In my mind, all English teachers look like they came from the 19th century. Unofficial Resources In addition to the multiple-choice practice questions provided by the College Board, there are also several places online where you can get unofficial multiple-choice practice questions. However, they aren’t all worth your time in terms of quality. I’ll go over the best ones here. For an even more robust list, check out our complete list. Barron’s Books Free Practice Test Barron’s offers a complete free practice test with multiple-choice and free response. So, that’s 55 questions at your disposal! There’s a timed mode and an untimed â€Å"practice† mode. The author and name of the work is provided for each passage, but not the date. You won’t have the author/title on the actual exam; I suspect that many free resources give this information to you for copyright reasons.Overall, the questions are high-quality and this is a good option when your well of official multiple-choice practice questions has run dry. McGraw-Hill AP Diagnostic Quiz McGraw-Hill has a 25-question multiple-choice â€Å"diagnostic quiz† for the AP English Literature exam. The questions are difficult and are pretty good imitations of AP questions. You may even be able to get more than 25 questions out of this site because every time you open a new test window, you’ll receive 25 randomly selected questions from their question pool.One slightly annoying thing to note if you use this resource is that the passages open in another window.As with the Barron’s test, you will receive the author and the title for each passage. You will not, however, recieve an atmospheric picture of the setting. Another solid option for getting more practice multiple-choice questions is a good review book. You want to make sure it’s high quality- I recommend Barron’s for the AP Literature exam in particular, as their questions do resemble real AP questions in difficulty and writing style. Test Day Tips for AP Lit Multiple-Choice Success Don’t rely on your memory of the passage when answering questions. Always look back at the passage, even if you think the answer is obvious! Interact with the passages- circle, mark, underline, make notes, whatever floats your boat. This will help you retain information and actively engage with the passage. Especially mark areas where there seems to be some kind of transition or change, as it’s highly likely that you will be asked questions about these transitions! It may also be helpful for you to jot some quick notes on the overall theme or motif of the passage/poem once you reach the end. This will help you on questions about the passage overall. If you’re having trouble making sense of a passage, skip it and move on to the next one. Odds are when you come back to it later, you’ll find it much easier to understand. And if you don’t, at least you didn’t waste too much time puzzling it out before you answered the questions about other, easier passages. Acing the AP Lit Multiple Choice: Key Takeaways The first section of the AP English Literature and Composition Exam is an hour-long, 55-question multiple-choice test about four-five literary and prose passages. This section is worth 45% of your total exam score. There are eight kinds of questions you can expect to see on the multiple-choice section: Reading Comprehension Inference Identifying and Interpreting Figurative Language Literary Technique Character Analysis Overall Passage Questions Structure Grammar/Nuts and Bolts Here’s how to best prepare to crush the multiple-choice sections: Read a variety of literary works and poems, from all of the eras and genres covered by the test! Hone your close-reading skills so you can identify what writers are doing and why they are doing those things. Learn literary techniques and terms and how to identify and apply them! Practice for the exam by taking practice sections and practice questions. There are a variety of official and unofficial resources available to practice. The best are College-Board official, but once you run out of those, there are also high-quality unofficial resources available. Here are some test-day tips to help you hit an English Lit home run: Always look back at the passage when answering questions- don’t rely on memory! Interact with the passages as you read through them, including marking significant moments and structural or tonal shifts in the text. You may also wish to write a couple of quick notes about the overall theme(s) and motifs of the passage at the end, to refer to when answering overall passage questions. If the language of a passage is hard to parse, skip it and come back later. Odds are it will make much more sense the second time around, and if it doesn’t, at least you didn’t waste time that you could have spent answering easier questions. And then you lived happily ever after. What's Next? Need more resources for AP English Literature? See our complete guide to the AP Literature Exam, our complete list of AP English Literature practice tests, and our AP English Literature Reading List. Also taking AP Language and Composition? We have an expert guide to AP Lang and Comp, a comprehensive list of AP Language and Composition practice tests, and a list of 55 AP English Language terms you must know. If you're taking other AP exams, check out our five-step AP study plan, when to start studying for AP exams, and how to find the best AP practice tests. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

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Climate change hastens population extinctions - Essay Example Literature review: The climate system is a complex, interactive system consisting of the atmosphere, land surface, snow and ice, oceans and other bodies of water, and living things. Climate is usually described in terms of the mean and variability of temperature, precipitation and wind over a period, ranging from months to millions of years (the classical period is 30 years). Global warming the most visible aspect of climate change affects our whole climate system including humans worldwide. In the past three decades the EL Nino effect in the Southern hemisphere has become more intense, causing greater variation in rainfall. . North America and Central Asia will warm more than the oceans or coastal regions. Precipitation will increase overall, but there will be sharp regional variations, with some areas that now receive adequate rainfall becoming arid. The consequences for non-human animals and bio-diversity will also be severe. In some regions plant and animal communities will gradually move further from the equator, or to higher altitudes, following climate patterns. Australia's unique alpine plants and animals already survive only on the country's highest alpine plains and peaks. If snow ceases to fall on their territory, they will become extinct. Similarly, many species are also shifting towards favorable climatic zones or facing threats of extinction. One such species is Checkerspot butterfly. Recent studies are pointing out that climate change may be one of the factors for extinction of species but not the sole reason. Therefore, the detection and attribution of climate change in natural system has been a challenge for climate change biologists. Assigning climate change as the cause of the observed biotic changes has often had a deeper basis, such as a known mechanistic link between climate variables and biology of the study of species (Parmesan et al. 2000). On a continental scale, movements of the entire species ranges have been found in butterflies in both north America and Europe, where two thirds of the 58 species studied have shifted their ranges northward (Parmesan, 1996; Parmesan et al. 1999). Seventy years of published studies document the limiting effects of temperature on butterfly population dynamics, particularly at northern range edges (Parmesan, 2003). The northern boundaries of many European butterflies are correlated with summertime isotherms (Thomas, 199 3). Montane studies are lesser in numbers and less documented but these shows upward movement of species in general. In one of the studies, Parmesan (1996) found that Edith's Checkerspot butterfly has shifted upwards by 105m in the Sieara Nevada Mountains of California. Now apart from warming impacts, the difference in rainfall has some impact on movement/extinction of species/plants. In one of the study, at sites in Alaska, more recent decades have been relatively dry, which is believed to have prevented trees from responding to current warming as they did before (Barber et al., 2000) Precipitation changes may also be the reason for shifting/extinction. Recent trends toward increased precipitation have seen to be driving vegetation compositions to be altering the relative abundances of species within Rodent, reptile and ant communities (Brown et al. 1997). Theory indicates that a

International Policy Analysis: Methodology

International Policy Analysis: Methodology 1. Introduction The last decade has witnessed many international developments that have profoundly affected the destinies of nations and humanity. The emergence of American unipolarism, the horrific attacks of September 11, and the rise of militant Islam, as well as the birth of the Euro and the business unification of affluent Europe are all important developments that have had far reaching effects on international affairs. However, these developments have been overshadowed by the rise of the phenomenon of globalisation, a process through which the developing world, riding on the strength of its low costs and ever expanding skill and knowledge base, has started integrating rapidly into the global economy. Most organisations operating in areas of government, business and not for profit need to work with the global community and operate in accordance with structured or informal international policies, which in turn define both their initiatives in the international arena as well as their responses to global developments. International organisations and international policy networks, in which many national bodies play a part, have significant roles in global governance. Considering that movements in goods and services are the causal factor behind the globalisation effort, multinational corporations and other organisations involved in overseas activity essentially need to have formalised international policies. Efficient and methodical analysis of international policy is an intriguing and specialised area of social research that involves deep understanding of social theory and international affairs, as well as sound familiarity with research tools. It is the objective of this manual to elaborate and describe the methodology that needs to be followed to analyse the international policies of different organisations in diverse environmental settings. 2. International Policy Analysis An assignment for analysis of international policy can arise either from an organisation responsible for framing the policy or from an external body wishing to analyse the policy of another organisation for specific purposes. Analysts could be part of in-house teams working on framing or implementing policies, or of external consultancies or think tanks engaged in the preparation of dispassionate appraisals. Researchers and analysts should also realise that many users of policy analyses have been disappointed with its results, despite the plethora of analytical studies and the increasing competence in the area. The proliferation of policy analysis has not, however, been matched by an examination of whether the annual production of hundreds of thousands of memos, briefings, articles, reports, books, and sundry policy prognosticationsinformed and otherwiseare actually useful to policymakers. What we do know is not encouraging: In public policy making, many suppliers and users of social science research are dissatisfied, the former because they are not listened to, the latter because they do not hear much they want to listen to (Lindblom (Hird, 2005) It thus becomes critically important for the analyst to understand the nature of the organisation desiring the analysis and its reasons for doing so. A thorough understanding of these reasons becomes invaluable in planning the assignment and in its subsequent conduct. Areas in international policy that need analysis are generally diverse and could encompass economic, political, security, environment or trade concerns. The framing of international policy primarily involves the evaluation and choice between different courses of action, programs and policies that are intended to address and resolve issues regarding social, economic and political issues in the global arena. It is the objective of this manual to guide policy advisors on the adoption of a systematic approach in the conduct of international policy analysis. It draws on the writing and theory of Carl Patton and other social researchers, all of whom find place in the bibliography. A policy analysis assignment involves certain steps in its execution and calls for the observance of certain principles to ensure the validity of its result. This manual commences with a discussion of the concept of policy, especially in relation to power and governance. It, thereafter, briefly takes up the practical principles that need consideration while planning and conducting the research, and then elaborates the sequential steps required for its proper execution. Policy A policy, very briefly, is a formulated plan used for the guidance of decisions and action and is used by groups, associations and organisations in the governmental and private sectors. An interesting and comprehensive definition refers to policies as â€Å"political, management, financial and administrative mechanisms arranged to reach explicit goals.† (Policy, 2006) >From universities and schools to public agencies and large corporations, policy is increasingly being codified, publicized and referred to by workers and managers as the guidelines that legitimate and even motivate their behaviour. To adapt a metaphor from Arthur Koestler (1967), policy is the ghost in the machine—the force which breathes life and purpose into the machinery of government and animates the otherwise dead hand of bureaucracy. (Shore Wright, 1997, p. 5) In a world that is becomingly increasingly complex, situations or problems are dynamic and incapable of proper definition. The process for policy formulation commences with the identification of issues and the development of various alternatives to deal with them. A rigorous and far-reaching assessment of the various alternatives leads to the selection of the final policy, which then needs proper implementation and monitoring. Very obviously, policies affect environments, societies and the lives of people, and while they can result in the greatest of good, they can lead to disastrous mistakes and to the commitment of the greatest crimes. The holocaust was a result of policy and so is the WHO’s global polio eradication programme. Policies have become a major institution of western and international governance and are distinguished into formal policy, embodying policy principles and objectives, and operational policy, which comprise of mechanisms for implementation and delivery. In the international policy of a trading organisation, the formal policy may, for example, require trade with East Asia with the clear definition of environmental and child labour constraints, whereas the operational policy would detail whether the operation would be controlled by the corporate headquarters in Europe or the regional hub in Singapore. Practical Principles of International Policy Analysis International policy can appear to be contradictory and difficult to understand. The analyst must try to understand and focus on the central and essential core of the policy, which in turn could involve cost, environmental, humanitarian or nuclear proliferation concerns. Policies frequently have several and opposing objectives, some of which suffer from poor definition. Analysts must thus try to focus on the core issues for analysis and not spend time on peripheral matters. Carl Patton and David Sawicki (1993) in their book â€Å"Basic Methods of Policy Analysis and Planning† state that that the principles described below should help in planning and conducting an analytical assignment on international policy. Ideally, analysts should base their approach on using analytical tools appropriate to the issue at hand and refrain from thrusting their preferred method onto the assignment. The chosen method should be simple, transparent, logical, based upon common sense and tailored to the issue under scrutiny. In many cases, policies are uncertain about issues and there is a lack of clarity in approach. Researchers must thus be ready to take uncertainty in their stride and realise that despite their best efforts some areas will remain cloaked in uncertainty; this constraint should however not be allowed to retard the progress of the analysis or devour too much of the time allotted for the assignment. International policy involves factors that are frequently alien to domestic situations and requires an understanding of different cultures and political systems. An international aid organisation, for example, may have to provide succour to the citizens of a country known to have a notoriously corrupt government. In the absence of quantitative data, which is usually the norm in such cases, any analysis of international policy must necessarily depend upon subjective interpretation for projecting outcomes. While some factors of international policy are bound to be subjective and incapable of interpretation or analysis through numerical data, numbers do throw light on many issues and are useful for projecting outcomes. The use of quantitative techniques and numerical data thus becomes important, wherever appropriate. Simplicity in analysis and the use of figures are also often effective in driving home the distinguishing features of different alternatives, especially during client inter action. It is also very important for analysts to check their facts exhaustively, try to appreciate the viewpoints of people with radically different opinions and arrive at analyses, not opinionated decisions. Steps in Policy Analysis Effective analysis of international policy requires an understanding of world affairs, a firm grounding in the social sciences and familiarity with quantitative and qualitative research tools. Moreover as much of the data is subjective and needs informed interpretation, international policy analysis falls as much in the domain of art as that of science. Given the choice between too much of structure in charting of an analytical assignment and leaving everything to the judgement of the researcher, it is advisable to follow a few sequential steps in the conduct of the assignment. Policy analysts, as a rule follow a series of six easily distinguishable steps. While some experts advocate the breaking of these steps to make the process simpler, this manual stays with the practice of adopting six important steps. These steps start with the definition of the problem and are followed by establishment of criteria for evaluation and collection of evidence, identification of alternatives, evalu ation of alternatives, distinguishing among alternatives, and finally implementation and monitoring of policy. a. Definition of the Problem A policy analysis exercise must necessarily commence with the definition of the problem. This step is crucial and integral to the success of the project. It provides the reason for the exercise and gives direction for gathering of evidence. While a certain amount of experience helps in defining and detailing the issue, the process should be iterative and the â€Å"definition’ exercise repeated a few times. A meaningful effort at problem definition will enable the researcher to state the problem appropriately, determine its scale, eliminate extraneous matter, and question both the thinking and the definition of the issue. While defining the problem it is important to use quantitative data, study similar projects and locate relevant data. This will help in removing uncertainties, illuminating objectives, resolving divergences and focussing on the essence, i.e. the core issue. â€Å"Problem definition is a crucial step. However, because it is hard to get it right (the) same ste p (might be needed) again and again. Over the course of analytic work, empirical and conceptual understanding will evolve.† (Bardach, 2000, p. 7) b. Establish Evaluation Criteria The next step involves the establishment of criteria for evaluation and collection of evidence. This is essential to crystallize the modus of measurement of policy goals, bring about uniformity and establish similar criteria for assessing different alternatives and policy outcomes, desirable or otherwise. A number of factors, including costs, net gains, efficacy, fairness, organizational comfort, legal validity and suitability need consideration while establishing evaluation criteria. Most of the time spent on policy analysis happens because of the time required to gather data and time needed to think. While thinking is obviously by far the more important activity, data gathering is laborious and takes time. Data helps in three ways in the projection of realistic outcomes of policy and in the analysis of its implications. One purpose is to assess the nature and extent of the problem(s) you are trying to define. A second is to assess the particular features of the concrete policy situation you are engaged in studying. The third purpose is to assess policies that have been thought, by at least some people, to have worked effectively in situations apparently similar to your own, in other jurisdictions, perhaps, or at other times. (Bardach, 2000, p. 8) c. Identification of Alternatives Establishment of evaluation criteria leads to the next step, i.e. the identification of alternatives. The generation of alternatives requires imagination, knowledge and the ability to constructively brainstorm with other experts. The challenge of identifying alternatives, as good or possibly superior to the given policy, calls for combining ideas from different alternatives as well as from the one under study. It is important at this stage to assess the impact of any change in public policy that could have taken place in the interim or may well take place in the short and medium term. Public policy changes can occur due to a number of reasons, namely changes in the political establishment following elections, changes in budget, changes in the political structure of foreign countries or occurrences of disasters like the Tsunami or the Bird Flu epidemic. International policy, by its very nature is not prone to change at short notice and the assimilation of the possible effect of future changes into the generation of alternatives has proved to be very helpful in projecting policy outcomes. d. Assessment of Alternatives The identification of alternatives results in a need for their evaluation in terms of the benefits that each of them could provide vis-à  -vis established criteria. Data collection may again be required at this stage for the assessment of different alternatives and the projection of possible outcomes. This is a crucial phase of the process as new aspects of the problem could now surface, leading to reiteration of the various steps of the analysis. The evaluation of alternatives should actually focus on evaluating the outcomes of the different proposals as trade-offs between different alternatives cannot occur in the absence of projected outcomes. The criteria for evaluation should encompass different perspectives like costs, efficacy, fairness, equity and justice. Carl Patton (1993) states that evaluative criteria could also include issues like free markets, economic freedom, capitalism, freedom from government control, equality of opportunity, equality of result, free speech, relig ious freedom, privacy and safety. The analyst must bear in mind that the objective of the exercise is analysis for a specific user and not the handing down of a considered decision and should thus try to be as broad ranging as possible in the choice of evaluative criteria. e. Distinguish and Display Alternatives Evaluation of alternatives and outcomes makes it possible for the analyst to assess the extent of benefits met by individual alternatives, in the context of previously decided criteria, and in distinguishing between them. In case of conflict between alternatives that do not easily fit into the matrix of benefits, it is possibly advisable to go by the alternative that suits existing public policy. Issues of legality and political acceptability are also very important while distinguishing between alternatives and it would be patently unwise to consider alternatives, which while satisfying other criteria, skirt legal requirements or could end up as politically difficult to implement. While distinguishing and displaying alternatives, the analyst should focus on simplicity of presentation, use of tables and quantitative data and the highlighting of worst and best case scenarios for each alternative. The report must be clear, simple, tabulated properly and be easy to comprehend. f. Implement and Monitor Policy Once a policy alternative is accepted it is the role of the analyst to round off the exercise by planning for its implementation and creating a system to monitor policy outcomes. The monitoring and effective implementation of international policy is crucial as improper application and inadequate monitoring could result in undesirable outcomes and policy failure. International policies need to be very carefully monitored during implementation to ensure that unintentional changes do not occur and actual outcomes can be measured against those projected. 3. Conclusion The analysis of International Policy falls under the domain of applied social research and is a complex task that requires knowledge of social sciences, grounding in international affairs and familiarity with the tools of social research. A detailed and comprehensive understanding of the core issues involved in policy analysis assignment is a sine qua non and possibly the most crucial part of the analytical process. International policy analysis involves the use of quantitative and qualitative data, a variety of approaches to the subject and choice of appropriate methodology. Analysts must be ready to work â€Å"out of the box† at all times, especially in the identification of various alternatives. Policy analysis, while it uses scientific and statistical tools, is very interpretative in its approach and liable to bias. It is thus imperative that the exercise has a structured and phased approach and that all assumptions are identified clearly. Records should be kept accurately, information must be accessed from multiple sources and relevant professional and ethical considerations addressed appropriately to ensure the success of the exercise. Bibliography Bardach, E. 2000. A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem Solving. New York: Chatham House Publishers. Feller, I. 1986 Universities and State Governments: A Study in Policy Analysis. New York: Praeger Publishers. Fischer, F. Forester, J. (Eds.). 1993. The Argumentative Turn in Policy Analysis and Planning. London: UCL Press. Gross, F. 1954, Foreign Policy Analysis. New York: Philosophical Library. Hird, J. A. 2005, Policy Analysis for What? the Effectiveness of Nonpartisan Policy Research Organizations. Policy Studies Journal, 33(1), 83+. Hogwood, B. W., Gunn, L. A. 1984. Policy Analysis for the Real World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Patton, C and Sawicki, D, 1993, Basic Methods of Policy Analysis and Planning, 2nd Ed., Prentice Hall, USA Policy, 2006, Wikipedia, Retrieved January1, 2006 from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy Roe, E. 1994. Narrative Policy Analysis: Theory and Practice. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Rust, M. 2001, November 19. Who Bought off the Think Tanks? Corporations Eager to Do Business with China Have Cozied Up to Conservative Think Tanks, Raising Concerns about Their Influence Level on Foreign-Policy Analysis. Insight on the News, 17, 20+. Shore, C. Wright, S. (Eds.). 1997 Anthropology of Policy: Critical Perspectives on Governance and Power. London: Routledge. Thomas M. Meenaghan, Keith M. Kilty and John G. McNutt Social Policy Analysis and Practice. 2005. Journal of Sociology Social Welfare, 32(3), 208+. Wignaraja, G. (Ed.). 2002. Competitiveness Strategy in Developing Countries: A Manual for Policy Analysis. London: Routledge

Learning Team A Week One Reflection Essay

The object of the reflection for this week is to discuss the objectives for Week One and their relation to the importance of the balance sheet to internal and external users. The objectives discussed by Learning Team A are the components of cash and cash equivalents, and the comparison and contrast of different inventory cost flow assumptions and how they are valued. The internal users are indentified as management and the external users are investors and creditors. Cash and Cash Equivalents Cash is defined in the text as the â€Å"most liquid of assets† and is identified by companies as a current asset. (Weygandt, Kimmel, & Kieso, 2010) What has become very popular is the classification called cash and cash equivalents. FASB has determined that classification to be misleading and it will probably be eliminated from financial statements. Cash will be cash and what used to be short term cash equivalents will now be reported as temporary investments. One of the situations leading to this decision is some companies having to take large losses on auction-rated notes. These notes are liquid because they can be traded daily, but they are not short term because the terms of the notes can be lengthy, in some cases 30 years. When the economy went bad, the auctions stopped, the value went away and the companies participating had to take sizeable losses. Why inventory is important on the Balance Sheet Inventory is an important aspect on the balance sheet. When an outsider studies the balance sheet, they have to look at the assets that the company currently has to make the inventory portion of the balance sheet make sense. The reason that the inventory shows on the balance sheet as a current asset is so outsider investors assume the inventory sells in the future when the product is complete. When investors review the balance sheet, they also like to see that the company does not have too much inventory in case they are cannot sell it, or get rid of the inventory in the future. If companies do not have an accurate amount of inventory they have to estimate it to reflect the information on the balance sheet. Calculating inventory value using Gross Profit and Retail Inventory methods The gross profit inventory valuation method is pretty simple. Beginning inventory plus purchases minus sales at selling price less gross profit percentage equals ending inventory. The major disadvantage of this method is that it is an estimate and not actual which is why it is not a GAAP approved method unless physical inventory is done to back up the valuation (Kieso, Weygandt, & Warfield, 2010). The retail inventory method, on the other hand, is an acceptable way to valuate inventory. Many retail stores have so many items it is really impractical to do regular inventory counts. To calculate inventory valuation this way, the store takes the beginning inventory plus purchases less sales to determine ending inventory at the retail price. Then the goods available for sale at cost amount is divided by the goods available for sale at retail amount to determine the cost-to-retail ratio; that figure is multiplied by the retail ending inventory to come up with the cost. Internal users of accounting can include management, employees, and owners. Managers use this accounting information to view the company’s performance. Employees view accounting information for job security. Owners view accounting information to view profits from their investments. External users can insist of creditors, investors, and customers. Creditors use this information to check the company’s credit worthiness. Investors would like to earn money from their investments. Customers would like to maintain a long term company customer relationship. The balance sheet allows internal and external users to view what the business has and what the business owes. Knowing a company’s net worth is very important. Using different methods to calculate inventory for companies can be very critical.

The Effects Of Divorce On Their Intimate Relationship

Young Adults and the Effects of Divorce on their Intimate Relationship Divorce on children can be one of the most traumatic things that a child may go through. Although, the reasons for divorce can range from financial, lack of communication, infidelity to a lack of love for each other. Many of these children have a cacophony of things that is being initiated in their minds that can cause depression, concentration issues at school, and behavior issues at home, as well as at school. The effect or psyche on these children as they grow into young adults can vary from not being able to trust others, or loss of a connection with the parent that leaves the home. As young adults deciding to enter long-term relationships they†¦show more content†¦The countless number of these young adults may choose to delay marriage or avoid it altogether by going to college, establish a work history and get financially secure before entering a long-term relationship whether that be cohabitation or marriage. Women, especially, may choose these things because of the sh ift of attitudes for them to go to school get a degree and work as a professional without fear of having a stigma or being labeled in a negative way. Couples in which the women experienced parental divorced reported significantly lower levels of intimacy, and mutually constructive communication, and higher levels of demand-withdrawal patterns and mutual avoidance of conflict (Mullett, et, al, 2002). Children increasingly live in cohabiting families either because of being born to cohabiting parents or of their mother’s entry into a cohabiting union (Bumpass, et, al, 2000). Accordingly, this makes their relationship feel more normal based because it was what they know. According to Bumpass et al some choose cohabitation over marriage for other reasons. Some adults see it as an easier way to end if there is no paperwork involved and it can be a better arrangement for the couple that feel they are not ready for marriage. It is also a way to learn more about your partner before g etting married. It can be cheaper than getting a divorce if they split up. Although, the stability of aShow MoreRelatedThe Correlation Of Children With Divorced Parents1629 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract This paper discusses the correlation of children with divorced parents and their ability or inability to have intimate relationships in their futures. In most cases, it depends on the age of the child at the time of the divorce. Studies showed that marital problems, including but not limited to divorce, was associated with negative social, emotional, and physical affects in the children’s lives. Most articles included have different types of specific details, but all generally have the sameRead MoreThe Negative Effects Of Divorce1447 Words   |  6 Pagesworldwide is divorce. Research has shown that there is a significant amount of effects on children after a divorce. 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Essay about European Missionaries in Africa - 1222 Words

European Missionaries in Africa At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Christianity was bounded to the coastal areas of Africa. At this time in Western Africa, there were a total of three missionary societies operating in western Africa. There was the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG), the Wesleyan Missionary Society (WMS), and the Glasaw and Scottish Missionary Society (GSMS). In the southern portion of Africa, the Morovian Missionary and the London Missionary were dominant. There was only one society in eastern Africa and there were none at all in northern Africa. However, by 1840 the number of missionary societies had increased to more than fifteen in western Africa, eleven in southern Africa, five in†¦show more content†¦Crowther was very popular amongst his people and later became the first African Anglican bishop. ( Gordon 285) Crowther had a firm belief that Africa could not be evangelized by Europeans, but only by Africans themselves. He argued that the presence of Europeans enda ngered the â€Å"manly independence and the courage and bravery of Africans† ( Boahen 22) Even though white missionaries did place pressure on some portions of Africa, take for example southern Africa, there is little doubt that those in the heart of Africa were facing great danger in being subjected to the Zulu, Boers, or Ndebele people and saw the white missionaries as a â€Å"savior† and embraced them. (Boahen 16) This could be a reason why the Africans tolerated and welcomed the white man to begin with, when they could have fought them out of their lands. In addition preaching the Gospel and converting the African people to Christianity, these European Missionaries also translated the Bible into several African languages. The Missionary Societies also promoted agriculture as well as teaching certain skills such as printing and tailoring. 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Imperialism is defined as the extension or rule or influence by one government, nation, or society over the political, economic, or cultural life of another. European nations decided they wanted land in the mostly unexplored continent, and they took it, withoutRead MoreEssay about The making of modern Africa1393 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿The Making of Modern Africa: Colonialism Take a look at the past, our history; although there is only one factual outcome, there are an infinite number of opinions, perspectives and almost always more than one side to a story. I will be taking a look in to the novel, Colonial Africa, written by Dennis Laumann, as well as, African Perspectives on Colonialism, by A. Adu Boahen, and hopefully through this, we can gain a stronger understanding of Colonialism in Africa and how Boahen and Laumann compareRead MoreColonialism And Its Impact On Africa1206 Words   |  5 Pagesestablishment had one of the biggest impacts on Africa. This experience of colonialism began to take effect between the 1400s and 1800s. It started when the Europeans arrived to Africa and set up trading posts. In the late 1800s and early 1900s the increase of European power took over most of the continent. The legacy of the colonial experience will influence the history of the continent. Mid 1700s to the late 1880s the Europeans increased their involvement in Africa. The reason was the resistance againstRead MoreThe Impact Of Slavery On Africa Socially, Economically, And Politically For Over 300 Years.969 Words   |  4 Pages2. Slavery impacted Africa socially, economically, and politically for over 300 years. Slavery had a major social impact on Africa, due to the fact that the vast numbers involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade led to a color association. Africa already had an existing slave trade system in place. Women were incredibly degraded and devalued for the reason that numerous of were captured and sold into slavery. Polygamy became the norm because many African societies lacked African males because theyRead MoreThe Role Of Ethnicity And Its Effects On The Development Of Africa, Latin America, And Southeast Asia1106 Words   |  5 PagesEthnicity was a major factor in the colonization of Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia and still has a larg e impact on LDCs today. The different ethnicities or regional, political, economic and cultural factors were often manipulated by the European rulers to contrivance a ‘divide and conquer’ technique and hegemony in the LDCs. The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of ethnicity in LDCs in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia on contemporary politics. First, a brief overviewRead MoreChristianity And Church History During The 20th Century1063 Words   |  5 Pagescommon people or individual. In this paper, the history of Christianity will told from below. It will be told from the prospective of an individual who was born and lived in South Africa in the middle 20th century, during apartheid. First, this paper will briefly discuss the beginning of Christianity in South Africa. Second, it will discuss Christianity and church history during the 20th century, which is the main time period referenced in the paper. Third, it will discuss church history fromRea d MoreThe Consequences of the First African Encounter with Europeans827 Words   |  4 PagesTHE AFRICAN ENCOUNTER WITH EUROPEANS The coming in of Europeans in Africa resulted in many changes. At first their arrival led to the improvement of trade, though a lot of minerals were taken away by them. But things turned worse when that trade turned into the selling and buying of human beings. From that time many things happened to the African people. Some of the things that happened were the arrival of missionaries who had also an impact on the African community. Later on it was the conquest